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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">av</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Abanico veterinario</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Abanico vet</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2007-428X</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2448-6132</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sergio Martínez González</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.21929/abavet2019.929</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00229</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículos de revisión</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>L-Arginina, Aspartato y Glutamato, y su relación con la reproducción de ovejas. Revisión</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3079-3748</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Alvarez-Cardona</surname>
						<given-names>Fernanda</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9851-8873</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Maki-Díaz</surname>
						<given-names>Griselda</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0345-7578</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Franco-Robles</surname>
						<given-names>Elena</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7977-2796</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Cadena-Villegas</surname>
						<given-names>Said</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0255-0722</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Hernández-Marín</surname>
						<given-names>Antonio</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Maestría Interinstitucional en Producción Pecuaria, Sede Universidad de Guanajuato, México. fermustang@hotmail.com </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad de Guanajuato</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Guanajuato</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
				<email>fermustang@hotmail.com</email>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Arte y Empresa, División de Ingenierías, Campus Irapuato-Salamanca, Universidad de Guanajuato, México. g.maki@ugto.mx</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad de Guanajuato</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Arte y Empresa</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Guanajuato</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
				<email>g.maki@ugto.mx</email>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Veterinaria y Zootecnia, División de Ciencias de la Vida, Campus Irapuato-Salamanca, Universidad de Guanajuato, México. e.francorobles@ugto.mx jahmarin@ugto.mx</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad de Guanajuato</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Veterinaria y Zootecnia</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Guanajuato</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
				<email>e.francorobles@ugto.mx</email>
				<email>jahmarin@ugto.mx</email>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma Chapingo. México. scadena@colpos.mx</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma Chapingo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma Chapingo</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
				<email>scadena@colpos.mx</email>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">*Autor de correspondencia y responsable de la investigación: José Antonio Hernández Marín. Departamento de Veterinaria y Zootecnia. División de Ciencias de la Vida. Campus Irapuato-Salamanca. Universidad de Guanajuato. ExHacienda el Copal km 9, carretera Irapuato-Silao, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México. C.P. 36824.</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>30</day>
				<month>07</month>
				<year>2021</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2019</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>9</volume>
			<elocation-id>e929</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>01</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2019</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>10</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2019</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="pub">
					<day>16</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2019</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN</title>
				<p>En la mayoría de los sistemas de producción pecuaria es importante optimizar la actividad reproductiva para aumentar la eficiencia productiva. Este indicador depende de factores ambientales como la nutrición, la cual regula el inicio de la pubertad, el desarrollo folicular ovárico, la calidad de los ovocitos y, como resultado, el desarrollo embrionario. La finalidad de las estrategias de nutrición animal es incrementar la eficiencia reproductiva, para obtener mejores ingresos económicos en la mayoría de los sistemas de producción pecuaria. Investigaciones recientes reportan que la suplementación dietética con aminoácidos específicos como arginina, glutamina, leucina, glicina y metionina tiene efectos beneficiosos sobre la supervivencia y el crecimiento embrionario y fetal mediante la regulación de la señalización clave y las rutas metabólicas. En los sistemas de producción ovina, suplementar por diferentes vías con aminoácidos neuroestimuladores como L-Arginina, aspartato y glutamato, mejora la eficiencia reproductiva en la hembra de una manera técnica y económica, en la cual se pretende eliminar la manipulación hormonal de los animales. Por lo anterior, el objetivo de la presente revisión de literatura es describir la función neuroestimuladora de los aminoácidos y conocer la respuesta neuroendócrina en el eje hipotálamo- hipófisis-ovarios en ovejas para mejorar las variables productivas y reproductivas.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>aminoácidos neuroestimuladores</kwd>
				<kwd>neuroendocrinología</kwd>
				<kwd>eficiencia reproductiva</kwd>
				<kwd>gonadotropinas</kwd>
				<kwd>ovinocultura</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="52"/>
				</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>INTRODUCCIÓN</title>
			<p>La actividad ovárica responde a la adecuada secreción de la LH y de la FSH en la adenohipófisis, por la secreción de la GnRH en el hipotálamo. Esta comunicación endócrina también ocurre por la acción de compuestos que actúan como neurotransmisores, a partir del suministro de aminoácidos neuroestimuladores que favorecen la secreción pulsátil de la GnRH y la LH (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Mahesh y Brann, 2005</xref>), como el glutamato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">GLU; Brann y Mahesh, 1997</xref>), el aspartato (ASP; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Boni <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>) y la arginina (ARG; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Recabarren <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>).</p>
			<p>La acción de los aminoácidos como glutamina, prolina, y glicina regulan las funciones de la salud, supervivencia, crecimiento, desarrollo, lactancia y la reproducción (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Wu, 2010</xref>); o inciden en la expresión génica, la fertilidad, neurotransmisión y la inmunidad en los animales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Wu, 2014</xref>). Además, GLU, glutamina, glicina, triptófano, tirosina, D-alanina, D- aspartato y D-serina, regulan el desarrollo y la función neurológica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fernstrom, 2012</xref>). Los neurotransmisores conforman las redes neuronales y controlan funciones celulares y sinápticas en el sistema nervioso central (SNC), la neurotransmisión excitadora e inhibitoria está mediada en gran parte por el GLU y el ácido gamma-aminobutírico (GABA), que son neurotransmisores excitadores e inhibidores, respectivamente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Mayor y Tymianski, 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>El GLU regula la expresión del comportamiento sexual, específicamente en el área preóptica medial, mediante la acción de la dopamina, debido a su acción sobre las neuronas GnRH (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Iremonger <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>). En el macho, para regular las secreciones de testosterona, la cual se requiere como mediador de las concentraciones basales de dopamina para aumentar la habilidad copulatoria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Will <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>Se ha reportado que en roedores aumenta la actividad neuronal que facilita la erección del pene y el comportamiento de apareamiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Li <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). En el control de la reproducción en la oveja, se observa que la actividad ovárica responde a los cambios neuronales en el cerebro y resulta de las alteraciones complementarias en el control de la función hipotalámica, específicamente en la regulación y secreción de la GnRH (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Weems <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). La GnRH, es el primer mensajero responsable en el inicio, restablecimiento y la ciclicidad de la actividad reproductiva en ovejas y cabras, y está regulada por distintos neurotransmisores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Meza-Herrera, 2012</xref>). El control de la secreción pulsátil de la GnRH por el hipotálamo y su respuesta ovárica en la secreción de la LH y de la FSH por la adenohipófisis, se favorece por la acción de compuestos que actúan como neurotransmisores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Brann y Mahesh, 1995</xref>) y se mejora con el suministro de aminoácidos neuroestimuladores (AANE). Se ha descrito que los neurotransmisores y los neuromoduladores, presentan propiedades estimuladoras e inhibitorias, las cuales dependen de la composición del neurocircuito, el estado de desarrollo y ambiente hormonal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Terasawa y Fernández, 2001</xref>); dicha clasificación se basa en las características del control de la liberación pulsátil de la GnRH en el animal adulto; y con base en esta clasificación, se pueden describir a los AANE como estimuladores o inhibitorios. Los principales neurotransmisores del SNC son los AANE (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Urbanski <italic>et al.</italic>, 1994</xref>), los cuales tienen especificidad en la activación de las neuronas postsinápticas del SNC.</p>
			<p>La neurotransmisión de los AANE es un componente esencial en la transmisión neuroendócrina, la cual regula la secreción de las hormonas hipofisiarias. Los AANE como ASP y GLU; se encuentran en gran cantidad en áreas presinápticas de una variedad de núcleos hipotalámicos, como: núcleo arcuato, supraquiasmático, supraóptico, paraventricular y el área preóptica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Brann y Mahesh, 1994</xref>).</p>
			<p>Estudios en ovinos consideraron prácticas de manejo para mejorar la eficiencia productiva de los rebaños de manera técnica y económica, en los cuales se pretende eliminar la manipulación farmacológica de los animales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Martin <italic>et al</italic>., 2004</xref>). Estas metodologías se basan en el conocimiento de los eventos reproductivos, factores socio- sexuales y efectos de la nutrición (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hawken y Martin, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Scaramuzzi <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>); o la alimentación focalizada, a partir de complementos energéticos y proteínicos destinados en los momentos críticos de la reproducción (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Somchit-Assavacheep, 2011</xref>).</p>
			<p>Por lo anterior, el objetivo de la presente revisión de literatura, es describir la función neuroestimuladora de los aminoácidos y conocer la respuesta neuroendócrina en el eje hipotálamo-hipófisis-ovarios en ovejas, para mejorar las variables productivas y reproductivas.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>L-ARGININA Y SU ACCIÓN NEUROENDÓCRINA EN LA REPRODUCCIÓN</title>
			<p>El aminoácido L-Arginina (ARG) se aisló por primera vez en 1886, a partir de las semillas de la leguminosa <italic>Lupinus</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Wu y Morris, 1998</xref>). Se sintetiza a partir de la glutamina, glutamato (GLU) y prolina intestinal, mediante el eje renal en la mayoría de los mamíferos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Wu, 1998</xref>); participa en el metabolismo como sustrato para la síntesis de proteínas, debido a que es un intermediario en el ciclo de la urea que se realiza en el hígado, y como precursor para la síntesis de varias moléculas metabólicas, como el óxido nítrico (ON) y las poliaminas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Kim <italic>et al.</italic>, 2007</xref>). En la ruta de la arginasa, las poliaminas son sintetizadas de la ornitina para participar en la embriogénesis y en el crecimiento placentario (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Reynolds y Redmer, 2001</xref>).</p>
			<p>En 1987, la comunidad científica descubrió que el cuerpo humano produce ON (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Tsikas, 2007</xref>). Se sabe que el ON es un regulador en el proceso reproductivo de la hembra (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Tamanini <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>), como el desarrollo y el crecimiento de la placenta, mantenimiento de la gestación y la fisiología del parto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kwon <italic>et al.</italic>, 2004</xref>), la función ovárica, desarrollo folicular ovárico y la ovulación; además, participa en la regulación de la presión sanguínea, respuesta inmune, agregación de plaquetas y la neurotransmisión.</p>
			<p>La ARG es el único substrato de todas las isoformas del óxido nítrico sintetasa (ONS; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Wiesinger, 2001</xref>). La producción del ON es mediante la oxidación del grupo amino de ARG, la cual utiliza oxígeno molecular como co-sustrato, y como producto secundario de la reacción; se obtiene L-Citrulina (CIT; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Tsikas, 2007</xref>). La CIT puede reciclarse a ARG mediante la arginosuccinato sintetesa y la arginosuccinato liasa, lo cual forma el ciclo CIT-ON (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Mori y Gotoh, 2004</xref>).</p>
			<p>El mecanismo de acción del ON como regulador de dichos procesos, responde a que éste estimula a la enzima guanilato ciclasa soluble, para sintetizar guanosín monofosfato cíclico (cGMP), el cual se encarga de dicha regulación (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">figura 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Acción del óxido nítrico (ON) en el control y liberación de la hormona liberadora de gonadotropinas (GnRH). </title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-9-e929-gf1.jpg"/>
					<attrib>Efecto positivo [+], efecto negativo [-], GABA: Ácido gama aminobutírico, GC: Guanilil ciclasa, cGMP: Guanidín metil fosfato cíclico, COX: Ciclooxigenasas, PG: Prostaglandina, Glu: Glutamato, NPY: Neuropéptido Y, ONS: Óxido nítrico sintetasa (Modificado de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Faletti <italic>et al</italic>., 1999</xref>).</attrib>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>En el hipotálamo, las neuronas del ON están próximas a las de la GnRH, lo cual sugiere que el ON puede ser un regulador en la secreción de la GnRH. Dichas neuronas se localizan en varios núcleos hipotalámicos (núcleo preóptico, núcleo hipotalámico ventromedial y núcleo acuarto); y también en otros sitios (órgano vascular de la lámina terminal, área preóptica y la eminencia media), relacionados en la regulación de la secreción de la GnRH (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Grossmann <italic>et al.</italic>, 1994</xref>). Se sabe que el ON controla la acción de las hormonas y de los neurotransmisores indispensables para regular la reproducción, por relacionarse en el control de la LH y en la ovulación. Además, varios neurotransmisores inhibitorios y estimuladores afectan las neuronas de la ONS en el hipotálamo y controlan la secreción del ON (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Dixit y Parvizi, 2001</xref>).</p>
			<p>La suplementación con ARG en animales de producción, mejora las variables productivas y reproductivas. Incluir 1.0% de clorhidrato de arginina (L-Arginina HCl, Ajinomoto) en la dieta de cerdas Camborough 22 gestantes (30 a 114 d), incrementa 24% el peso de los lechones al nacimiento y aumenta 22% el tamaño de la camada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Mateo <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). En ovejas Suffolk prepúberes (2 meses de edad), la infusión de 200 ml de ARG (350 mM, pH 7.4) vía intravenosa por venopunción en yugular durante 60 min, aumenta la concentración media de la LH durante 285 min después de la infusión con amplitud &gt;1 ng ml<sup>-1</sup> en 13 de 17 pulsos de LH; lo cual sugiere que la infusión de ARG estimula la secreción de la LH en ovejas prepúberes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Recabarren <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>).</p>
			<p>En protocolos de sincronización del estro con esponjas intravaginales, en ovejas Awassi adultas (3.5 a 4.0 años de edad), suplementar ARG (0.5 g kg<sup>-1</sup> de peso corporal) durante 15 días a partir del retiro de la esponja, aumenta la cantidad de cuerpos lúteos (CL; 2.38±0.67), las concentraciones de E<sub>2</sub> (5.92±0.33 pg mL<sup>-1</sup>) y de P4 (4.21±0.83 ng mL<sup>-1</sup>); en comparación con la respuesta de las ovejas testigo: 100±0.58 CL, 4.56±1.06 pg mL<sup>-1</sup> de E<sub>2</sub> y 1.79± 0.31 ng ml<sup>-1</sup> de P4, lo cual mejora la tasa de parición y de partos gemelares, debido al incremento en la tasa ovulatoria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Al-Dabbas <italic>et al</italic>. 2008</xref>).</p>
			<p>En ovejas de pelo adultas sincronizadas con 40 mg de acetato de fluorogestona impregnado en esponjas intravaginales (Cronolone-Chrono-Gest, Intervet®) por 12 d, la suplementación con ARG (300 mg kg<sup>-1</sup> de peso corporal) durante 3 d previos al retiro de la esponja, mejora la presentación de estros (PE; 100%), la tasa ovulatoria (TO; 1.7±0.13) y la prolificidad (PROL; 1.4±0.16); en comparación con la respuesta de las ovejas sincronizadas solo con progesterona oleosa (PE: 28.6±18.4%, TO: 1.4±0.25 y PROL: 1.5±0.5), lo cual mejora los protocolos de sincronización del estro con progestágenos, debido a los efectos positivos de la suplementación con ARG en la eficiencia reproductiva en ovejas de pelo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bulbarela-García <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>).</p>
			<p>En ovejas Rambouillet, tratadas con 27 mg de L-Arginina HCl/kg de peso vía intravenosa durante el reconocimiento materno de la gestación, se observó que la tasa de gestación se mejoró en 24%; lo cual sugiere que la ARG se relaciona con la síntesis del ON, y que realizar el tratamiento previo al reconocimiento materno de la gestación en ovejas se mejora la supervivencia embrionaria temprana, mediante la síntesis de poliaminas y de ON (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Saevre <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>ASPARTATO Y SU ACCIÓN NEUROENDÓCRINA EN LA REPRODUCCIÓN</title>
			<p>El ácido D-aspártico es un neurotransmisor que actúa vía el receptor de GLU para estimular la secreción de la GnRH; se encuentra de manera natural en hipófisis, tiroides, ovario, adrenal y pineal; en el cerebro, en órganos excretorios como hígado y riñón, en músculo y los tejidos profundos. En la actualidad, se ha demostrado que este D- aminoácido puede ser convertido a ácido N-metil-D-aspártico (NMDA), un neuromodulador relacionado con la actividad sexual, el cual causa la liberación de hormonas hipotalámicas e hipofisarias, y posiblemente la administración del ácido D- aspártico, aumente las concentraciones de NMDA en el sistema nervioso; debido a que el ácido D-aspártico está presente en forma natural y se almacena en la hipófisis, cerebro y la glándula pineal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Boni <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>).</p>
			<p>El NMDA se biosintetiza de manera endógena a partir de D-Aspartato, por una enzima dependiente de S-adenosilmetionina, NMDA sintasa, y es un potente agonista de la actividad de los ácidos aspártico y glutámico, los cuales tienen una actividad neuromoduladora que provoca la liberación de hormonas de la hipófisis, <italic>in vivo</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">D´aniello <italic>et al.,</italic> 2000a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">2000b</xref>) e <italic>in vitro</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Barb <italic>et al.</italic>, 1993</xref>), y pertenece al grupo de receptores ionotrópicos de GLU.</p>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Estienne <italic>et al.</italic>(1989 a</xref>) administraron vía intravenosa NMDA (12 mg kg<sup>-1</sup> de peso corporal; mezcla racémica, Sigma Chemical co., St. Louis, MO) en carneros Hampshire castrados (4 meses de edad y 28.1±1.3 kg de peso) y observaron un incremento de la hormona de crecimiento (GH; 185.1±20.7 ng ml<sup>-1</sup>), en lugar de la secreción de la LH a los 15 minutos después de inyectar la dosis, la cual estuvo en el rango que estimuló la secreción de la LH en monos; por lo tanto, concluyeron que es posible que el carnero sea menos sensible a la NMDA y requiera mayor dosis para evocar la secreción de la LH.</p>
			<p>Por el contrario, en ovejas oavarioectomizadas, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Estienne <italic>et al.</italic> (1989 b</xref>) demostraron que el suministro de estradiol vía subcutánea (1 pg ml-1 de E<sub>2</sub>; implante Silastic, tubo de polietileno; Portex Ltd, Hythe, Kent) disminuye la concentración sérica de la LH. No obstante, la aplicación intravenosa de 6, 12 o 24 mg NMDA kg<sup>-1</sup> de peso corporal (disuelta en solución salina al 0.9%) aumenta las concentraciones medias de LH en un 326% (<italic>P</italic> &lt; 0.03), 1125% (<italic>P</italic> &lt; 0.02) y 441% (<italic>P</italic> &lt; 0.0001).</p>
			<p>Por lo anterior, estos resultados demuestran que el E<sub>2</sub> exógeno suprime la secreción de la LH en ovejas ovarioectomizadas de una manera antagonizada, por efecto del NMDA. Se ha reportado que si se mejora la nutrición en ovejas se puede incrementar la concentración plasmática de ácido D-aspártico en el cerebro, para estimular un aumento en la secreción de la GnRH, debido al efecto del NMDA en las concentraciones de las hormonas hipofisarias y los efectos positivos del ácido D-aspártico en la tasa ovulatoria y en las concentraciones de las hormonas hipofisarias. Así, aplicar ácido D-aspártico (vía endovenosa) durante cinco días en la fase lútea del ciclo estral, no afecta la tasa ovulatoria, pero reduce las concentraciones plasmáticas de la LH y la FSH en ovejas ciclando (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Downing <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>). Por lo tanto, la disminución de la secreción de las gonadotropinas en ovejas ciclando tratadas con ácido D-aspártico, se debe a la respuesta en el hipotálamo o en la adenohipófisis; las cuales no están relacionadas con las secreciones de la retroacción ovárica, aunque es posible que estos cambios disminuyan la secreción de la GnRH.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>GLUTAMATO Y SU ACCIÓN NEUROENDÓCRINA EN LA REPRODUCCIÓN</title>
			<p>El GLU actúa en el control de las funciones cerebrales, por encontrarse en gran cantidad en las sinapsis del cerebro, y por los numerosos subtipos de receptores de GLU encontrados en el SNC (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brann y Mahesh, 1997</xref>). El GLU y el ASP se clasifican como AANE predominantes del SNC en los mamíferos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kalb, 1995</xref>); debido a que los receptores para GLU se encuentran distribuidos en el hipocampo, corteza cerebral y el cerebelo; dicho aminoácido influye en diversos procesos fisiológicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Brann, 1995</xref>), como en el control de la secreción de las gonadotropinas y en la ovulación de la hembra (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brann y Mahesh, 1997</xref>).</p>
			<p>Se ha reportado que la administración de agonistas de GLU estimula la liberación de la GnRH y la LH; mientras que los receptores antagonistas de GLU, disminuyen la inducción esteroidea y el aumento preovulatorio de la LH (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Dhandapani y Brann, 2000</xref>). Así, los receptores de los AANE son receptores neurotransmisores estimuladores más abundantes en el SNC, también denominados “receptores para GLU” desde que se conoce por ser el mayor ligando endógeno. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brann y Mahesh (1997)</xref> reportaron dos grupos de receptores:</p>
			<p>Ionotrópicos: receptores acoplados a canales iónicos, divididos en los subtipos N- metil-D-aspartato (NMDA), kainato y ácido propiónico DL-α-metil-3-hidroxi-4-isoxazol (AMPA), donde su principal modo de acción es por la modulación de los canales de los iones Na<sup>+</sup>, K<sup>+</sup> y Ca<sup>2+</sup>.</p>
			<p>Metabotrópicos: receptores acoplados a proteínas G, que modulan la producción de mensajeros secundarios como el inositol fosfato y/o adenilato ciclasa.</p>
			<p>El GLU existe en cuatro formas distintas: transmisor, metabólico, glial y precursor del GABA. El GLU se relaciona en los procesos críticos como la pubertad, pulsatilidad de las hormonas y el comportamiento sexual; también se conoce por liberar el neurotransmisor ON, el cual estimula potentemente a la GnRH, mediante la activación de una enzima contenedora de hemo, guanilato ciclasa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Dhandapani y Brann, 2000</xref>). Se ha reportado que el GLU estimula la secreción de la LH (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brann y Mahesh, 1997</xref>) y que los agonistas de receptores de GLU ionotrópicos, incrementan la secreción de la LH después de inyecciones sistémicas o intracerebroventriculares en ratas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Zamorano <italic>et al.</italic>, 1998</xref>), mediante la estimulación de la secreción de la GnRH. La acción de estos receptores subyace en la rápida transmisión sináptica estimulatoria mediada por el GLU en el SNC (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Brann y Mahesh, 1994</xref>).</p>
			<p>Estudios recientes indican que la glutamina, el GLU y la ARG desempeñan funciones importantes en la regulación de la expresión génica, señalización celular, respuestas antioxidantes y la inmunidad. Además, el GLU, la glutamina y el ASP son combustibles metabólicos importantes para el intestino delgado y, junto con la glicina, regulan la función neurológica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Wu, 2013</xref>). En la función reproductiva, la suplementación con ARG durante el reconocimiento materno de la gestación en ovejas favorece la supervivencia embrionaria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Crane <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>) y mejora las tasas de gestación y de parición (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Luther <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). El NMDA y la LH aumentan después de la administración de ASP, lo cual sugiere una función de este aminoácido en la actividad reproductiva en las ovejas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Boni <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>). El GLU es un mediador primario de la transmisión sináptica excitadora en el SNC y sus receptores están localizados en una variedad de núcleos hipotalámicos; algunos de los cuales son críticos para la reproducción y en la función neuroendocrina, por su relación con la pubertad, la neurogénesis y el comportamiento reproductivo en la hembra (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Meza-Herrera <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>CONCLUSIÓN</title>
			<p>La acción de los aminoácidos neuroestimuladores estimulan la secreción de las gonadotropinas adenohipofisiarias, y por lo tanto, regula el control de los eventos fisiológicos gonadales. Este conocimiento se puede aplicar para aumentar la eficiencia reproductiva en ovejas y mejorar las variables productivas y reproductivas.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>L-Arginine, Aspartate and Glutamate, and their relationship with the ewes’ reproduction. Review.</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">*Correspondence author and head of research: José Antonio Hernández Marín. Department of Veterinary and Zootechnics. Life Sciences Division. Irapuato-Salamanca Campus. University of Guanajuato. ExHacienda el Copal km 9, Irapuato-Silao road, Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico. C.P. 36824.</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p>In most of livestock production systems, it is important to optimize reproductive activity to increase productive efficiency. This indicator depends on environmental factors such as nutrition, which regulates the onset of puberty, ovarian follicular development, oocyte quality and as a result, embryonic development. The purpose of animal nutrition strategies is to increase reproductive efficiency, to obtain better economic income in most of livestock production systems. Recent research reports that dietary supplementation with specific amino acids such as arginine, glutamine, leucine, glycine and methionine they have beneficial effects on survival and embryonic and fetal growth by regulating key signaling and metabolic pathways. In sheep production systems, supplementation with different routes with neurostimulatory amino acids such as L-Arginine, aspartate and glutamate, improves reproductive efficiency in females in a technical and economical way, with the aim of eliminating hormonal manipulation of the animals. Therefore, the objective of the present review of the literature is to describe the neurostimulatory function of amino acids and to know the neuroendocrine response in the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis in sheep to improve productive and reproductive variables.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>neurostimulatory amino acids</kwd>
				<kwd>neuroendocrinology</kwd>
				<kwd>reproductive efficiency</kwd>
				<kwd>gonadotropins</kwd>
				<kwd>sheep production</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>INTRODUCTION</title>
				<p>The ovarian activity responds to the adequate secretion of LH and FSH in the adenohypophysis, by the secretion of GnRH in the hypothalamus. This endocrine communication also occurs through the action of compounds that act as neurotransmitters, from the supply of neurostimulatory amino acids that favor the pulsatile secretion of GnRH and LH (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Mahesh y Brann, 2005</xref>), such as glutamate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">GLU; Brann y Mahesh, 1997</xref>), aspartate (ASP; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Boni <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>) and arginine (ARG; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Recabarren <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>).</p>
				<p>The action of amino acids such as glutamine, proline, and glycine regulate the functions of health, survival, growth, development, lactation and reproduction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Wu, 2010</xref>); or affect gene expression, fertility, neurotransmission and immunity in animals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Wu, 2014</xref>). In addition, GLU, glutamine, glycine, tryptophan, and tyrosine, D-alanine, D-aspartate and D-serine regulate the development and neurological function (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fernstrom, 2012</xref>). Neurotransmitters make up the neural networks and control cellular and synaptic functions in the central nervous system (CNS), excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission is largely mediated by GLU and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which are excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters , respectively (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Mayor y Tymianski, 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>The GLU regulates the expression of sexual behavior, specifically in the medial preoptic area, through the action of dopamine due to its action on GnRH neurons (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Iremonger <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>). In the male, to regulate testosterone secretions, which is required as a mediator of baseline dopamine concentrations to increase copulatory ability (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Will <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>). Rodents increase neuronal activity that facilitates penile erection and mating behavior (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Li <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). In the control of reproduction in sheep observed that, ovarian activity responds to neuronal changes in the brain and results from complementary alterations in the control of hypothalamic function, specifically in the regulation and secretion of GnRH (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Weems <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). GnRH is the first messenger responsible for the initiation, restoration and cyclicity of reproductive activity in sheep and goats, and it is by different neurotransmitters regulated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Meza-Herrera, 2012</xref>). The control of the pulsatile secretion of GnRH by the hypothalamus and its ovarian response in the secretion of LH and FSH by the adenohypophysis is by the action of compounds favored that act as neurotransmitters (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Brann y Mahesh, 1995</xref>) and they are improvement with the supply of neurostimulatory amino acids (AANE). Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators have stimulatory and inhibitory properties that depend on the composition of the neurocircuit. In addition, it depends on the state of development and the hormonal environment (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Terasawa y Fernández, 2001</xref>). This classification is the characteristics of the control based on, of the pulsatile release of GnRH, in the adult animal and based on the classification AANEs can be as stimulators or inhibitors described. The main CNS neurotransmitters are AANE (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Urbanski <italic>et al.</italic>, 1994</xref>), which have specificity in the activation of postsynaptic CNS neurons. The neurotransmission of AANEs is an essential component in neuroendocrine transmission, which regulates the secretion of pituitary hormones. AANEs such as ASP and GLU are in large numbers in presynaptic areas found, of a variety of hypothalamic nuclei: arcuate, suprachiasmatic, supraoptic, paraventricular nucleus and preoptic area (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Brann y Mahesh, 1994</xref>).</p>
				<p>Studies in sheep considered management practices to improve the productive efficiency of the herds in a technical and economic way, in which it is to eliminate the pharmacological manipulation of the animals intended (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Martin <italic>et al</italic>., 2004</xref>). These methodologies are based on knowledge of reproductive events, socio-sexual factors and the effects of nutrition (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hawken y Martin, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Scaramuzzi <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>); or focused feeding, based on energy and protein supplements destined in the critical moments of reproduction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Somchit-Assavacheep, 2011</xref>). Therefore, the objective of the present review of the literature is to describe the neurostimulatory function of amino acids and to know the neuroendocrine response in the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis in sheep to improve the productive and reproductive variables.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>L-ARGININE AND ITS NEUROENDOCRINE ACTION IN REPRODUCTION</title>
				<p>The amino acid L-Arginine (ARG) was first isolated in 1886, from the seeds of the legume <italic>Lupinus</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Wu y Morris, 1998</xref>). It is from glutamine, glutamate (GLU) and intestinal proline synthesized through the renal axis in most mammals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Wu, 1998</xref>). It participates in the metabolism as a substrate for protein synthesis, because it is an intermediate in the urea cycle that is in the liver performed and as a precursor for the synthesis of several metabolic molecules, such as nitric oxide (NO) and polyamines (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Kim <italic>et al.</italic>, 2007</xref>). In the arginase pathway, polyamines are from ornithine synthesized to participate in embryogenesis and placental growth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Reynolds y Redmer, 2001</xref>).</p>
				<p>In 1987, the scientific community discovered that the human body produces NO (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Tsikas, 2007</xref>). It is known that NO is a regulator in the female reproductive process (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Tamanini <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>), such as the development and growth of the placenta. Besides, it participates in the maintenance of pregnancy and the physiology of delivery (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kwon <italic>et al.</italic>, 2004</xref>), ovarian function, ovarian follicular development and ovulation; In addition, it participates in the regulation of blood pressure, immune response, platelet aggregation and neurotransmission.</p>
				<p>ARG is the only substrate of all isoforms of nitric oxide synthetase (NOS; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Wiesinger, 2001</xref>). The production of the NO is by oxidation of the amino group of ARG, which uses molecular oxygen as a co-substrate, and as a secondary product of the reaction, L- Citrulline is obtained (CIT; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Tsikas, 2007</xref>). The CIT can be recycled to ARG by synthetic arginosuccinate and arginosuccinate lyase, which forms the CIT-NO cycle (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Mori y Gotoh, 2004</xref>). The mechanism of action of the NO as a regulator of said processes, responds to the fact that it stimulates the soluble guanylate cyclase enzyme to synthesize cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), which is responsible for such regulation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Action of nitric oxide (NO) in the control and release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2448-6132-av-9-e929-gf2.gif"/>
						<attrib>Positive effect [+], negative effect [-], GABA: Aminobutyric acid range, GC: Guanilyl cyclase, cGMP: Guanidine methyl cyclic phosphate, COX: Cyclooxygenase, PG: Prostaglandin, Glu: Glutamate, NPY: Neuropeptide, NOS: Oxide nitric synthetase (Modified by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Faletti <italic>et al</italic>., 1999</xref>).</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>In the hypothalamus, the neurons of the NO are close to those of the GnRH, which suggests that the NO may be a regulator in the secretion of the GnRH. These neurons are located in several hypothalamic nuclei (preoptic nucleus, ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus and aquatic nucleus), and in other sites (vascular organ of the terminal lamina, preoptic area and middle eminence) related in the regulation of GnRH secretion (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Grossmann <italic>et al.</italic>, 1994</xref>). The NO controls the action of hormones and neurotransmitters essential to regulate reproduction, it is known by relating to the control of LH and ovulation. In addition, several inhibitory neurotransmitters and stimulators affect the NOS neurons in the hypothalamus and control the secretion of the NO (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Dixit y Parvizi, 2001</xref>).</p>
				<p>ARG supplementation in production animals improves the productive and reproductive variables. Include 1.0% of arginine hydrochloride (L-Arginine HCl, Ajinomoto) in the diet of 22 pregnant Camborough sows (30 to 114 d), increase piglet weight by 24% and increase litter size by 22% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Mateo <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). In prepubertal Suffolk sheep (2 months old) infusion of 200 mL of ARG (350 mM, pH 7.4) was applied intravenously via in the jugular venipuncture for 60 min increases the average concentration of LH for 285 min after infusion with amplitude&gt; 1 ng mL<sup>-1</sup> in 13 of 17 pulses of LH. It suggests that the infusion of ARG stimulates the secretion of LH in prepubertal sheep (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Recabarren <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>).</p>
				<p>In estrous synchronization protocols with intravaginal sponges in adult Awassi sheep (3.5 to 4.0 years of age) was supplemented ARG (0.5 g kg<sup>-1</sup> body weight) for 15 days after sponge removal, increased the amount of luteal bodies (CL; 2.38±0.67), the concentrations of E<sub>2</sub> (5.92±0.33 pg mL<sup>-1</sup>) and P4 (4.21±0.83 ng mL<sup>-1</sup>). It was compared to the response of the control sheep: 100±0.58 CL, 4.56±1.06 pg mL-1 of E<sub>2</sub> and 1.79±0.31 ng mL-1 of P4, which improves the birth rate and twin deliveries due to the increase in the ovulatory rate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Al-Dabbas <italic>et al</italic>. 2008</xref>).</p>
				<p>In adult hair sheep synchronized with 40 mg of fluorogestone acetate impregnated in intravaginal sponges (Cronolone-Chrono-Gest, Intervet<sup>®</sup>) for 12 d ARG supplementation (300 mg kg<sup>-1</sup> body weight) for 3 days prior to Sponge removal improves the presentation of estrus (PE; 100%), ovulatory rate (TO; 1.7±0.13) and prolificacy (PROL; 1.4±0.16). It was compared to the response of sheep synchronized only with oil progesterone (PE: 28.6±18.4%, TO: 1.4±0.25 and PROL: 1.5±0.5), which improves estrogen synchronization protocols with progestogens, due to the positive effects of ARG supplementation on reproductive efficiency in sheep hair (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bulbarela-García <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>).</p>
				<p>In Rambouillet sheep, treated with 27 mg of L-Arginine HCl/kg of intravenous weight during maternal recognition of pregnancy was observed that the pregnancy rate was by 24% improved that suggests that ARG is related to the synthesis of NO. The treatment prior to maternal recognition of pregnancy in sheep improves early embryonic survival through the synthesis of polyamines and NO (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Saevre <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>ASPARTATE AND ITS NEUROENDOCRINE ACTION IN REPRODUCTION</title>
				<p>D-aspartic acid is a neurotransmitter that acts via the GLU receptor to stimulate the secretion of GnRH. It is naturally in the pituitary, thyroid, and ovary, adrenal and pineal; in the brain, in excretory organs such as liver and kidney, in muscle and deep tissues. At present, this D-amino acid can be to N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) converted. It is a neuromodulator related to sexual activity, which causes the release of hypothalamic and pituitary hormones and possibly the administration of D-aspartic acid. Increase NMDA concentrations in the nervous system; because D-aspartic acid is naturally present and is stored in the pituitary, brain and pineal gland (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Boni <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>).</p>
				<p>NMDA is biosynthesized endogenously from D-Aspartate by an enzyme dependent on S- adenosylmethionine, NMDA synthase and it is a potent agonist of the activity of aspartic and glutamic acids. These have a neuromodulatory activity that causes release of pituitary hormones, <italic>in vivo</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">D´aniello <italic>et al.,</italic> 2000a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">2000b</xref>) and <italic>in vitro</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Barb <italic>et al.</italic>, 1993</xref>), and belongs to the group of ionotropic GLU receptors.</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Estienne <italic>et al.</italic>(1989 a</xref>) administered intravenously NMDA (12 mg kg<sup>-1</sup> body weight; racemic mixture, Sigma Chemical co., St. Louis, MO) in castrated Hampshire rams (4 months old and 28.1±1.3 kg of weight). It observed an increase in growth hormone (GH; 185.1±20.7 ng mL<sup>-1</sup>) instead of LH secretion at 15 minutes after injecting the dose, which was in the range that stimulated secretion of LH in monkeys. Therefore, they concluded that it is possible that the ram is less sensitive to NMDA and requires a larger dose to evoke the secretion of LH.</p>
				<p>On the contrary, in ovarian-ectomized sheep, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Estienne <italic>et al.</italic> (1989 b</xref>) demonstrated that the supply of estradiol subcutaneously (1 pg mL<sup>-1</sup> of E<sub>2</sub>; Silastic implant, polyethylene tube; Portex Ltd, Hythe, Kent) decreases the serum concentration of LH. However, intravenous application of 6, 12 or 24 mg NMDA kg<sup>-1</sup> body weight (dissolved in 0.9% saline) increases the average LH concentrations by 326% (P &lt;0.03), 1125% (P &lt; 0.02) and 441% (P &lt;0.0001). Therefore, these results demonstrate that exogenous E<sub>2</sub> suppresses the secretion of LH in ovarian-ectomized sheep in an antagonized manner by the effect of NMDA.</p>
				<p>Sheep nutrition improved the plasma concentration of D-aspartic acid in the brain can be increased, to stimulate an increase in GnRH secretion, due to the effect of NMDA on pituitary hormone concentrations and the positive effects of D-aspartic acid on the ovulatory rate and pituitary hormone concentrations. Thus, applying D-aspartic acid (intravenously) for five days in the luteal phase of the estrous cycle does not affect the ovulatory rate, but reduces the plasma concentrations of LH and FSH in cycling sheep (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Downing <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>). Therefore, the decrease in gonadotropin secretion in cycling sheep treated with D-aspartic acid is due to the response in the hypothalamus or adenohypophysis, which are not to the secretions of ovarian retroaction related, although it is possible that, these changes decrease the secretion of GnRH.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>GLUTAMATE AND ITS NEUROENDOCRINE ACTION IN REPRODUCTION</title>
				<p>GLU acts in the control of brain functions, because it is in large numbers at the synapses of the brain found, and by the numerous subtypes of GLU receptors found in the CNS (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brann y Mahesh, 1997</xref>). GLU and ASP are as predominant AANE classified of the CNS in mammals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kalb, 1995</xref>). Because of GLU receptors are distributed in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and cerebellum; this amino acid influences various physiological processes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Brann, 1995</xref>), such as the control of gonadotropin secretion and the ovulation of the female (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brann y Mahesh, 1997</xref>).</p>
				<p>The administration of GLU agonists stimulates the release of GnRH and LH, while GLU antagonist receptors decrease steroid induction and the pre-occupational increase of LH (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Dhandapani y Brann, 2000</xref>). Thus, AANE receptors are the most abundant stimulatory neurotransmitter receptors in the CNS, also called “GLU receptors” since it is known to be the largest endogenous ligand. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brann y Mahesh (1997)</xref> reported two groups of receptors:</p>
				<p>Ionotropic: receptors coupled to ion channels, divided into the subtypes N-methyl-D- aspartate (NMDA), kainate and propionic acid DL-α-methyl-3-hydroxy-4-isoxazole (AMPA), where its main mode of action it is through the modulation of the channels of the Na<sup>+</sup>, K<sup>+</sup> and Ca<sup>2+</sup> ions.</p>
				<p>Metabotropic: receptors coupled to G proteins, which modulate the production of secondary messengers such as inositol phosphate and/or adenylate cyclase.</p>
				<p>The GLU exists in four different forms: transmitter, metabolic, glial and precursor of GABA. GLU is to critical processes related such as puberty, the pulsatility of hormones and sexual behavior. Releasing the neurotransmitter NO, which potently stimulates GnRH by activating a heme-containing enzyme, guanylate cyclase (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Dhandapani y Brann, 2000</xref>). GLU stimulates LH secretion <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brann y Mahesh (1997)</xref> and that ionotropic GLU receptor agonists increase LH secretion after systemic or intracerebroventricular injections in rats (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Zamorano <italic>et al.</italic>, 1998</xref>), by stimulating the secretion of GnRH. The action of these receptors underlies the rapid stimulatory synaptic transmission mediated by GLU in the CNS (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Brann y Mahesh, 1994</xref>).</p>
				<p>Recent studies indicate that GLU, ARG and glutamine play important roles in the regulation of gene expression, cell signaling, antioxidant responses and immunity. In addition, GLU, glutamine and ASP are important metabolic fuels for the small intestine and, together with glycine, regulate neurological function (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Wu, 2013</xref>). In reproductive function, ARG supplementation during maternal recognition of pregnancy in sheep favors embryonic survival (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Crane <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>) and improves pregnancy and delivery rates (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Luther <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). NMDA and LH increase after ASP administration, which suggests a role of this amino acid in reproductive activity in sheep (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Boni <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>). GLU is a primary mediator of excitatory synaptic transmission in the CNS and its receptors are located in a variety of hypothalamic nuclei, some of which are critical for reproduction and neuroendocrine function, due to their relationship with puberty, neurogenesis and reproductive behavior in the female (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Meza-Herrera <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>CONCLUSION</title>
				<p>The action of neurostimulatory amino acids stimulates the secretion of adenohypophyseal gonadotropins, and therefore regulates the control of gonadal physiological events. This knowledge can be to increase reproductive efficiency applied in sheep and improve productive and reproductive variables.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
	</sub-article>
</article>